The Peace of Westphalia Ends Decades of War

In October 1648, two treaties signed in the northwestern German region of Westphalia brought a formal end to the Thirty Years' War across the Holy Roman Empire. The conflict had devastated central Europe since 1618, causing millions of deaths through widespread warfare, disease, and starvation. Reaching a resolution required years of diplomatic maneuvering, producing the Treaty of Münster between the Holy Roman Emperor and France, and the Treaty of Osnabrück between the Emperor and Sweden.

Because the opposing factions refused to convene in a single location under rival authority, talks were split between two demilitarized cities in Westphalia. Catholic-controlled Münster hosted discussions involving France, the Empire, and Spanish representatives, whereas predominantly Protestant Osnabrück accommodated Sweden and imperial diplomats. Delegations from European powers, imperial estates, and a range of other interest groups took part. The congress was formally set to open in July 1643, and the envoys never convened in a unified plenary session, arriving and departing at different intervals over the following years.