The Spanish Armada Sails Against England

In July 1588, a massive Spanish fleet entered the English Channel on an ambitious mission to depose Elizabeth I. Philip II of Spain planned the campaign to halt English privateering against his transatlantic trade, terminate English backing for the Dutch revolt, and re-establish Roman Catholicism across England. Commanded by Alonso de Guzman, Duke of Medina Sidonia, the enterprise was designed to link up with the Duke of Parma's Army of Flanders, which waited on the continent to be ferried across the water in barges under the protection of the Spanish warships.

Philip's operational plan depended on intricate timing between land and sea components that proved unworkable. Medina Sidonia oversaw more than one hundred vessels, but many of them were not purpose-built warships and served instead for supply, scouting, or carrying troops. Furthermore, Spanish naval doctrine still heavily emphasized the tradition of artillery volleys followed by ramming and hand-to-hand combat seen earlier at the Battle of Lepanto. English commanders, including Lord Howard of Effingham, Sir Francis Drake, and John Hawkins, opposed them with lighter, more manoeuvrable ships equipped to bombard the enemy from a distance.